Grade 8 Reading — History & Civics

The Constitution in Practice: Federalism and Shared Power

When delegates met in Philadelphia in 1787, they faced a difficult question: how could thirteen former colonies unite without creating a government so powerful it might threaten liberty? Their answer was a Constitution that divided authority between national and state governments. This arrangement, called federalism, remains one of the defining features of the United States political system. The Constitution assigns specific powers to the federal government, including defense, foreign relations, and regulation of interstate commerce. Powers not listed are reserved for the states, such as establishing schools and conducting most elections. Shared powers, like taxing and building roads, require cooperation and sometimes produce tension when leaders disagree about priorities. Separation of powers further limits authority by dividing the federal government into legislative, executive, and …

Sectionalism, Slavery, and the Road to Civil War

By the mid-1800s, the United States stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Economic interests, however, were not uniform. Northern states expanded factories, railroads, and wage labor. Southern states relied heavily on agriculture, especially cotton grown with enslaved labor. Sectionalism—deep loyalty to one's region over the nation—shaped politics, culture, and the growing conflict over slavery. Enslaved Africans and their descendants performed the labor that powered much of the Southern economy. They had no political voice under the laws of the time, yet their resistance—through slow-downs, escapes, literacy efforts, and rebellion—challenged the system. Free Black communities in the North built schools, churches, and newspapers that demanded abolition and equal rights. Westward expansion intensified disputes. Would new territories allow slavery? The Missouri Compromise of …